Risk Factors for Depression
Highly plausible risk factors for depression include:
Age. The risk of dysthymia increases with age until age 65, at which time there is a marked decrease (Bland 1997; Horwath and Weissman 1995; Keller 1994).
Culture. Although rates of dysthymia generally are similar across cultures, this finding is not universal. There is some evidence to suggest that rates of depressive symptoms and patterns of gender differences vary across cultures, especially when developed and developing countries are compared (Nolen-Hoeksema 1990, cited in Culbertson 1997). The conceptualization, assessment, and diagnosis of depression and dysthymia in terms that are universally acceptable continue to pose a problem in cross-cultural comparisons (Culbertson 1997).
Female Gender. A higher rate of depressive symptoms in females is one of the most robust findings in depression research. Although rates vary, a ratio of 2 : 1 for both major depression and dysthymic disorder is commonly accepted (Angst 1997; Culbertson 1997; Sprock and Yoder 1997).
Genetics. A link has been established between genetics and the development of depression. Potential genetic markers have been identified that are associated with the development of mood disorders.
Marital Status. Individuals who are divorced or separated show higher rates of depressive symptoms compared to those who are married or never have been married (Bland 1997; Horwath and Weissman 1995).
Poor Mental Health. Having mild-to-moderate depression (dysthymia) increases the likelihood of major depression. (Bland,1997; Horwath and Weissman 1995).
Poor Physical Health. High rates of depression are related to poor health in general (Burvill 1995), as well as to specific illnesses such as cancer, hypothyroidism, and Cushing's syndrome.
Substance Use or Abuse. Depression often co-occurs with substance abuse. The prevalence of dual diagnosis (also known as comorbidity) between dysthymia and substance abuse is approximately 18% (Maser, Weise, and Gwirtsman 1995).
